Space probe Space probe is an automatic spacecraft, sometimes with the possibility of remote control from the surface of the Earth, the main purpose of which is to explore outer space or test any technological

Space elevator A space elevator is a device that is supposed to be able to deliver cargo into planetary orbit or beyond. The first mention of the possibility of creating a device capable of delivering into orbit can be found in the works

Spaceship A spaceship is a spacecraft used for flights in low-Earth orbit, including under human control. All spaceships can be divided into two classes: manned and launched in control mode from the surface

Space suit A space suit is special equipment that was developed and intended to isolate a person or animal from the external, space environment. The components of the equipment form a shell that is impenetrable to components

This article is devoted to the description of a model for ensuring the readiness of technological equipment of rocket and space complexes for their intended use, taking into account the cost of the chosen strategy for replenishing spare parts. The task of determining a set of optimal strategies for replenishing spare parts and accessories elements of each nomenclature according to the “readiness - cost” criterion, taking into account the parameters of reliability, maintainability and storability, is substantiated. To solve the optimization problem, well-known models for justifying requirements for inventory systems are analyzed, which are based on methods for calculating their optimal structure, nomenclature and number of spare parts items, as well as the frequency of replenishment of a specific nomenclature of spare parts. The proposed model makes it possible to determine the cost of implementing a strategy for replenishing spare parts and accessories of one range during the designated service life of the equipment based on the use of the “readiness - cost” criterion and takes into account the parameters of failure-free operation, maintainability and storage of this equipment. The article provides an example of using models to select optimal strategies for replenishing the spare parts kit of a refueling unit.

preparedness model

resource intensity of operational processes

inventory systems

availability factor

1. Boyarshinov S.N., Dyakov A.N., Reshetnikov D.V. Modeling a system for maintaining the operable state of complex technical systems // Armament and Economics. – M.: Regional public organization “Academy of Problems of Military Economics and Finance”, 2016. – No. 3 (36). – P. 35–43.

2. Volkov L.I. Operation management of aircraft systems: textbook. allowance for colleges. – 2nd ed., revised. and additional – M.: Higher. school, 1987. – 400 p.

3. Dyakov A.N. Model of the process of maintaining the readiness of technological equipment with maintenance after failure // Proceedings of the Military Space Academy named after A.F. Mozhaisky. Vol. 651. Under general. ed. Yu.V. Kuleshova. – St. Petersburg: VKA named after A.F. Mozhaisky, 2016. – 272 p.

4. Kokarev A.S., Marchenko M.A., Pachin A.V. Development of a comprehensive program for increasing the maintainability of complex technical complexes // Fundamental Research. – 2016. – No. 4–3. – pp. 501–505.

5. Shura-Bura A.E., Topolsky M.V. Methods for organizing, calculating and optimizing sets of spare elements of complex technical systems. – M.: Knowledge, 1981. – 540 p.

In recent years, in scientific research devoted to the creation and operation of complex technical systems (CTS), the approach to increasing the efficiency of their functioning by reducing the life cycle cost (LCC) of these systems has received significant development. Managing the cost of life cycle of STS allows you to gain an advantage over competitors by optimizing the costs of purchasing and owning products.

This concept is also relevant for rocket and space technology. Thus, in the Federal Space Program of the Russian Federation for 2016-2025. The task of increasing the competitiveness of existing and promising launch vehicles is postulated as one of the priority tasks.

A significant contribution to the cost of services for launching payloads into orbit is made by the costs of ensuring the readiness of technological equipment (TEO) of rocket and space complexes (RSC) for their intended use. These costs include the cost of purchasing spare parts sets (spare parts, tools and accessories), their delivery, storage and maintenance.

The issue of substantiating the requirements for inventory supply systems (SPS) has been the subject of many works by authors such as A.E. Shura-Bura, V.P. Grabovetsky, G.N. Cherkesov, which propose methods for calculating the optimal structure of POPs, the nomenclature and number of spare parts elements. At the same time, the frequency (strategy) of replenishment of a specific range of spare parts, which significantly affects the cost of delivery, storage and maintenance of spare parts, is either considered given or remains outside the scope of research.

S1 - operational state of TlOb;

S2 - failure state, identification of the cause of failure;

S3 - repair, replacement of spare parts element;

S4 - waiting for the delivery of a spare parts element when not at the operation site;

S5 - monitoring of technical condition after repair.

Rice. 1. Availability model graph

Table 1

Laws of transitions from the i-th to the j-th state of the graph

Purpose of the study

In this regard, the task of developing a model for ensuring the readiness of RKK equipment for intended use, taking into account the cost of the chosen strategy for replenishing spare parts, becomes especially relevant.

Materials and research methods

To determine the availability factor of TlOb RKK we use the following expression:

where K Гh is the availability factor of the h-th element, depending on the indicators of failure-free operation, maintainability and storability;

H - number of elements.

Let us describe the dependence of the equipment availability factor on the indicators of reliability, maintainability and storage of the h-th element of the equipment using a graph model of the operational processes implemented on this equipment.

Let us make the assumption that the equipment can simultaneously be in only one state i = 1, 2, ..., n from the set of possible E. The flow of state changes is the simplest. At the initial time t = 0, the equipment is in operational state S1. After a random time τ1, the equipment instantly transitions to a new state j∈E with probability p ij ≥ 0, and for any i∈E. The equipment remains in state j for a random amount of time before moving to the next state. In this case, the laws of transitions from the i-th to the j-th state of the graph can be presented in the following form (Table 1).

To construct an analytical relationship, the following particular indicators of the maintenance and repair (MRO) system are used:

ω1 - element failure rate;

ω3 - failure recovery flow parameter (Erlang parameter);

ω5 - parameter of the flow of failures detected during monitoring of the technical condition of equipment after installation of spare parts and accessories (determined by the mathematical expectation of the shelf life of the spare parts element);

TPost - the duration of waiting for the delivery of a spare parts element that is not available at the operation site;

T d - duration of diagnosing, identifying the cause of failure, searching for the failed element;

T Kts - duration of technical condition monitoring after replacing a spare parts element;

n is the number of spare parts elements of the same nomenclature as part of the technical equipment;

m is the number of elements of one item in the spare parts and accessories.

table 2

Dependencies describing the properties of the graph model

To obtain analytical dependencies characterizing the model, a well-known approach was used, given in. To avoid repetition of known provisions, we will omit the conclusion and present the final expressions characterizing the states of the graph model (Table 2).

Then the probabilities of states of the semi-Markov process under study:

, (2)

, (3)

, (4)

, (5)

. (6)

The obtained dependencies determine the probabilities of finding the TlOb element in the states of the operational process under study. So, for example, the indicator P1 is a complex indicator of reliability - the availability factor, and expression (2) models the relationship between the parameters of reliability, maintainability, storability and the integral indicator, which is used as KГh.

Substituting into expression (2) the expressions for the operational and technical characteristics of the equipment from Table. 2, we obtain an expression that allows us to evaluate the influence of elements of one nomenclature on the equipment availability factor:

(7)

where λ h is the failure rate of the h-th element;

t2h - mathematical expectation of the duration of technical condition monitoring;

t3h - mathematical expectation of recovery time;

t4h is the mathematical expectation of the duration of waiting for the delivery of the h-th spare parts element that are not available at the operation site;

t5h - mathematical expectation of the shelf life of the h-th spare parts element;

T7h - mathematical expectation of the duration of technical condition monitoring;

T10h - period of replenishment of the h-th spare parts element.

The proposed model differs from the known ones in that it allows one to calculate the value of KG TlOb of the RSC depending on the parameters of its reliability, maintainability and storability.

To determine the cost of implementing a strategy for replenishing spare parts and accessories of one range during the designated service life of the equipment, you can use the following expression:

where is the cost of storing a spare parts element of one nomenclature during the designated service life of the equipment;

Costs for the supply of spare parts and accessories elements of the same range to replace those consumed during the designated service life of the equipment;

Costs of servicing a spare parts item of one item.

The number of spare parts items of one nomenclature required to ensure the required level of readiness of technical equipment during the replenishment period.

Research results and discussion

Let's consider the use of models to select optimal strategies for replenishing a set of spare parts and accessories for a refueling unit, ensuring a unit availability factor of at least 0.99 within 10 years of operation.

Let the failure flow be the simplest; let us take the failure flow parameter equal to the failure rate. Similarly, we accept the flow parameters ω3 and ω5 as values ​​inversely proportional to the mathematical expectations of the durations of the corresponding processes.

To carry out calculations, we will consider three options for strategies for replenishing a set of spare parts, which are limiting cases:

Bookmark for life;

Periodic replenishment (with a period of 1 year);

Continuous replenishment.

In table Figure 3 presents the calculation results for the spare parts set of the 11G101 unit, obtained using the models described above.

Table 3

Calculation results

From the analysis of table. 3 it follows that for items 1 and 4 the optimal strategy is periodic replenishment of spare parts, and for items 2, 3 and 5 - continuous replenishment.

A new model has been proposed to ensure the readiness of RKK's technical equipment, which can be applied to solve the problem of determining a set of optimal strategies for replenishing spare parts and accessories elements of each nomenclature according to the "readiness - cost" criterion, taking into account the parameters of reliability, maintainability and storability.

Bibliographic link

Rocket and space complex "Soyuz"

The Soyuz rocket and space complex is the oldest at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The most striking events in the history of world cosmonautics are associated with the functioning of this complex. The most significant among them are the launch on October 4, 1957 of the world's first artificial Earth satellite and the flight on April 12, 1961 of the planet's first cosmonaut, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin.

The complex was created on the basis of the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile, the famous royal “seven”. Its modifications are widely known throughout the world under the names “Sputnik”, “Vostok”, “Voskhod”, “Molniya” and “Soyuz”.

The number of spacecraft launches carried out using the Soyuz rocket and space complex is already approaching a thousand. Only 27 were unsuccessful. The high reliability of the complex allows it to be widely used in the implementation of the Russian Federal Space Program and in international cooperation programs.

For launches of Soyuz launch vehicles, two launch positions were built at the cosmodrome, one of them was created in 1957, the other in 1961. The launch positions occupy a vast territory (more than 100 hectares) and have one launcher each of which it is capable of performing up to 24 launch vehicles per year.

Preparation of launch vehicles and spacecraft for launch is carried out in five installation and testing buildings. Special apparatus and equipment provide the necessary temperature, humidity and finishing conditions, carrying out a full list of technological operations to prepare for the launch of launch vehicles, upper stages and spacecraft.

The Soyuz launch vehicle uses environmentally friendly fuel components; kerosene and liquid oxygen. During launch, the mass of the rocket is about 310 tons, and its engines develop a total thrust of up to 400 tons at the surface of the earth. The technical parameters of the rocket allow the launch of a payload weighing up to 7 tons into the reference orbit.

Rocket and space complex "Proton"

The Proton rocket and space complex is one of the main ones at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Thanks to the progressive scientific and technical solutions incorporated into it, this complex in terms of its reliability and many other indicators is the best in the world among launch systems of a similar class. Flights of automatic interplanetary stations with landings of vehicles on the Moon, Venus and Mars, as well as launches of long-term orbital stations "Salyut" and "Mir", communications and television broadcasting satellites into geostationary orbit are carried out using the Proton complex.

The complex was created on the basis of a three-stage Proton launch vehicle, having a length of 44.3 meters and a maximum cross-section of 7.4 meters. At the surface of the earth, its engines develop a thrust of 900 tons. The rocket is capable of launching a payload weighing up to 20 tons into a reference orbit, and when using an upper stage, a satellite weighing up to 3.5 tons into geostationary orbit. The first launch of Proton took place on July 16, 1965. Now the number of launches exceeds 250, of which only 11 ended unsuccessfully.

Preparation of launch vehicles, upper stages and spacecraft for launch is carried out at technical positions, which are located in four installation and testing buildings. Technical positions are equipped with special technological and general technical equipment, access roads and utilities. They are designed to receive launch vehicles and payloads from manufacturing plants, store, assemble and test them. Here, spacecraft are refueled with propellant components and compressed gases, and payloads are docked to launch vehicles.

The installation and testing building of the Proton launch vehicle is a unique structure, consisting of the actual installation and testing hall with an area of ​​more than 1,500 square meters and many service rooms with control rooms, control rooms, laboratories and other services.

Proton launch vehicles are launched from two launch pads, each of which has two launch positions, a command post, fuel and oxidizer storage facilities, refrigeration centers, high-voltage substations and other infrastructure facilities.

In 1996, Proton was the first domestic launch vehicle to enter the global market for commercial spacecraft launch services, and is marketed by International Launch Services.

During its operation, the rocket was repeatedly improved. Now the next stage of its modernization is ending. The new Proton-M will have a more advanced control system. Environmental pollution from fuel residues in the areas where spent stages fall will be reduced.

Rocket and space complex "Zenith"

The newest among the rocket and space complexes of the Baikonur Cosmodrome is Zenit. Its creation began in 1976 and was carried out in parallel with the development of the Energia-Buran reusable space system. The modified first stages of the Zenit launch vehicle were used as side blocks of the Energia launch vehicle.

The Zenit launch vehicle is made according to a two-stage design and is capable of launching a payload weighing up to 13.7 tons into a reference orbit with an altitude of 200 km and an inclination of 51°. Both stages use environmentally friendly fuel components - liquid oxygen and kerosene.

The launch site, which covers an area of ​​113 hectares, has two launchers, a cryogenic center and more than 50 technological systems. All operations for transportation, installation of the rocket on the launch device, docking of refueling stations and other communications are carried out automatically. The rocket can be launched within an hour and a half after its installation at the launch facility. Even if the launch is cancelled, work to restore the missile to its original state is carried out under remote control from the command post.

The technical position of the Zenit rocket and space complex includes an installation and testing building, storage facilities for launch vehicles and spacecraft, technical buildings and other structures.

In the late 1980s, the country's space programs underwent serious reductions. Many new satellites aimed at Zenit were never created. Therefore, the load on the rocket and space complex was low - a total of 32 launches were carried out. At the same time, the creators of the complex came up with a new idea to launch a launch vehicle from a floating platform. Thus, its capabilities are significantly expanded by moving the starting point to the equator. The project was called “Sea Launch”. Ukrainian companies participate in it. Russia, USA and Norway. The first successful launch of Zenit-31 from the Odyssey platform took place on March 28, 1999.

Rocket and space complex "Cyclone"

The general direction of work during the creation of the Cyclone rocket and space complex was to increase the safety of maintenance personnel when preparing the launch vehicle at the launch site. The Cyclone developers managed to fully implement the “deserted launch” concept. During the pre-launch preparation of the launch vehicle and the spacecraft on the launcher, all equipment of the complex is controlled remotely from the command post.

The Cyclone launch vehicle was created on the basis of the R-36 intercontinental ballistic missile, developed by the Yuzhnoye design bureau under the leadership of chief designer M.K. Yangelya.

Launches of the Cyclone launch vehicle began in 1967. The launch mass of this two-stage rocket (excluding the mass of the spacecraft) is 178.6 tons. The Cyclone rocket ensures the launch of spacecraft weighing 3.2 and 2.7 tons, respectively, into circular orbits with an altitude of 200 km and an inclination of 65° and 90°. Currently, this rocket is used only for launching spacecraft of the Cosmos series.

Elements of the ground infrastructure of the Cyclone rocket and space complex are compactly located on the left flank of the cosmodrome. The launch position is equipped with two launchers, one of which is now mothballed. The preparation of the launch vehicle and payloads is carried out in one assembly and testing building.

The disadvantage of the Cyclone rocket and space complex is the high toxicity of the fuel components, which creates a danger of environmental pollution in the event of an accident. However, this drawback is largely compensated by the high reliability of the complex. To date, more than a hundred launches of the Cyclone launch vehicle have been carried out, among which there is not a single emergency.

Rocket and space complex "Energia-Buran"

The Energia-Buran rocket and space complex includes the universal super-heavy launch vehicle Energia, the Buran orbital vehicle, as well as the ground-based space infrastructure of the launch vehicle and the orbital vehicle.

The Energia launch vehicle is a two-stage rocket designed according to the “package” design with a side-mounted payload. Its first stage consists of four side blocks 40 m high and 4 m in diameter. The side blocks are placed around the central block, its height is 60 m, diameter 8 m. The engines of the first stage operate on oxygen-kerosene fuel, the second stage - on oxygen-hydrogen fuel. The launch vehicle's launch weight is 2,400 tons. “Energia” is capable of launching a payload weighing more than 100 tons into near-Earth space. Many enterprises of the country took part in the creation of the Energia launch vehicle, led by the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation named after. S.P. Queen. The creation of the rocket and space complex was an outstanding achievement of domestic rocket and space technology designers.

The Buran orbital ship is a reusable spacecraft capable of long-term flights, orbital maneuvering, controlled descent and aircraft landing at a specially equipped airfield.

With the help of Buran, it is possible to deliver cosmonauts and payloads weighing up to 30 tons into space and return them to Earth, as well as carry out repairs and maintenance of spacecraft directly in orbit. The length of the orbital vehicle is 36.4 m, height 16.45 m, maximum launch weight 105 tons.

The technical complex of the reusable space system (ISS) “Energia-Buran” is located 5 km from the launch. It includes structures of truly grandiose proportions. These include the installation and testing building of the Energia launch vehicle, where the launch vehicle is assembled and undergoes the entire test cycle. It is the largest building of the cosmodrome, has five spans, its length is 240 m, its width is 190 m and its height is 47 m. On the busiest days, up to 2000 people worked here at the same time. The installation and testing building of the Buran orbital vehicle is somewhat smaller, it has a length of 224 m, a width of 122 m and a height of 34 m. Three orbital vehicles can be prepared simultaneously in its premises.

The ISS Energia-Buran launch complex is a huge ground-based complex covering an area of ​​more than 1000 hectares. It consists of several dozen structures housing more than 50 technological and 200 technical systems.

The launch facility of the ISS Energia-Buran is a five-story reinforced concrete structure with test equipment and other equipment. Two railway tracks, separated by 18 m, lead from the assembly and refueling building to the launch facility. Along them, four diesel locomotives transport the transport and installation unit with the Energia launch vehicle and the Buran orbital vehicle attached to it to the launch site.

The launch complex includes a universal “stand-launch” complex, which not only ensures the preparation and launch of the launch vehicle, but also with its help dynamic and fire tests are carried out, and the technology for refueling the Energia launch vehicle is being tested.

All launch systems are controlled by modern high-tech equipment from the command post. A high degree of automation of control processes provides the ability to detect and eliminate more than 500 emergency situations provided for by the program.

The landing complex of the orbital ship “Buran” is also a unique structure, which previously included the main Yubileiny airfield (Baikonur) and two spare ones (Simferopol and Khorol). It is designed to deliver the spacecraft from the manufacturer, ensure its landing upon return to Earth, as well as after-flight maintenance. In addition to its main purpose, the landing complex can be used as an airfield and receive aircraft of any class. The runway of the landing complex is 4.5 km long and 84 m wide.

The launches of the Energia launch vehicle, carried out on May 15, 1987 with a prototype of the Polyus spacecraft and on November 15, 1988 with the Buran orbital ship in an unmanned version, are a huge step for domestic science and technology in creating new means of development and space exploration.

The creation of the Energia-Buran ISS could become a new stage in the rapid development of Russian rocket and space technology. However, due to economic problems, further work on the Energia-Buran rocket and space complex was suspended.

The scientific and technical reserve accumulated during the creation of the Energia-Buran rocket and space complex is a valuable national treasure and is currently widely used in many areas of human activity.
Photos of RSC Energia-Buran

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Fdorov Alexey Vladimirovich

BASICS OF SPACE ROCKET DEVICES

COMPLEXES

Tutorial

INTRODUCTION........................................................ ........................................................ ................ 5

SECTION 1. BASICS OF CONSTRUCTION OF SPACE ROCKETS

COMPLEXES......................................................... ................................................... 7 BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT SPACE SYSTEMS.

1 STRUCTURE OF THE SPACE SYSTEM AND SPACE COMPLEX................................................................... ........................................................ .......... 7 1.1 Structure of the space system.................................................. ................................ 7 1.2 Space communication systems.................. ........................................................ ............. 1.3 Space navigation systems.................................. .......................... 1.4 Space weather systems.................................... ........................... 1.5 Space missile attack warning systems............ ..... 1.6 Space surveillance systems.................................................. ....................... PURPOSE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ROCKET AND SPACE COMPLEX................................... ........................................................ ........................... 2.1 Space complex: purpose and composition of the main parts............ ..... 2.2 Rocket and space complex: composition and purpose of the main elements SECTION 2. BASICS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF LAUNCH ROCKETS, UPPER UNITS AND SPACE VEHICLES ........ ......................... EXTRACTION MEANS.................................... ........................................................ ..... 3.1 General information about launch vehicles.................................................... ....................... 3.2 Launch vehicle engines.................................. ........................................................ .... 3.3 Operating conditions of the launch vehicle.................................................... ..... 3.4 Launch vehicle body design.................................................... .................. 3.5 On-board systems of the launch vehicle.................................... ..

3.5.1 Executive elements of the launch vehicle control system.................... 3.5.2 Launch vehicle separation systems................................... .................................... 3.5.3 Pneumohydraulic systems of the launch vehicle..... ........................... 3.6 Acceleration blocks................ ........................................................ ......................... SPACE VEHICLES................... ........................................................ 4.1 General information about spacecraft. Trends in changes in the design of modern spacecraft.................................................... 4.2 Principles for constructing structural and layout diagrams and design of spacecraft............................................................. .................................... 4.3 Operating conditions for spacecraft........ ................. 4.3.1 Loading of spacecraft.................................... ............................... 4.3.2 Rarefaction of the medium (space vacuum).......... ................................... 4.3.3 Meteor showers and space debris....... ............................................... 4.3.4 Zero gravity... ........................................................ ........................................... 4.3.5 Cosmic radiation (radiation) and heat flows................................ TECHNICAL FUNDAMENTALS OF ROCKET AND SPACE ENGINEERING.. 5.1 Structural materials of rocket and space technology equipment......................... 5.2 Heat-protective materials................................. ............................................... SECTION 3. BASICS OF THE DESIGN OF TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT OF ROCKET AND SPACE COMPLEXES...... GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT OF THE ROCKET AND SPACE COMPLEX........................... ................. 6.1 Basic information about cosmodromes.................................. ................................ 6.2 Basic information about the positional area of ​​the rocket and space complex....... ........................................................ ............................................... 6.3 General information on technological equipment of rocket and space complexes.................................................... ........................................................ ......... 6.4 The concept of a generalized technological process. Contents and sequence of technological operations with rocket launchers on the technical complex and SC........ 6.4.1 Contents of the main work carried out with rocket and space technology at the technical complex. ........................................................ ........ 6.4.2 Contents of the main work carried out with rocket and space technology at the launch complex................................... ................................... PURPOSE AND COMPOSITION OF TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT OF TECHNICAL AND LAUNCH COMPLEXES...... ....................... 7.1 Purpose and composition of the technological equipment of the technical complex................... ........................................................ ................................... 7.2 Purpose and composition of the technological equipment of the launch complex....... ........................................................ ............................................... 7.3 Features of refueling spacecraft and launch vehicles.

Purpose and composition of the technological equipment of the refueling station for spacecraft and launch vehicles.................................................... 7.3.1 Features of refueling spacecraft and RB.................................................... ............... 7.3.2 Purpose and performance characteristics of the gas station............................ ........................................................ ........................................... 7.3.3 Composition and purpose of the technological equipment of the gas station... ........................................................ ........................................................ ....... SECTION 4. FUNDAMENTALS OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATION OF SPACE ROCKET COMPLEXES..................................... ............................... ROCKET AND SPACE EQUIPMENT AS AN OBJECT OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATION......... ........................................... 8.1 Features of rocket and space technology as an object of operation . 8.1.1 Features of ground-based operation of space assets.................................. 8.1.2 Functional features of the RSC.................... ................................................... 8.1.3 Features of preparation production and launch of the ILV.................................. 8.1.4 Brief description of launch vehicles as an object of operation 8.1.5 Features of spacecraft as objects of operation....... 8.1.6 Properties of rocket fuel components and compressed gases and their influence on the operation of rocket spacecraft................................... ........................................................ ......... 8.2 Features of rocket and space technology as an object of production. ROLE AND PLACE OF QUALITY CONTROL OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATION OF ROCKET AND SPACE EQUIPMENT PRODUCTS 9.1 The concept of operational quality. Classification of operational properties of KSR and their characteristics.................................... 9.2 Quality control of rocket and space technology production.. .......... 9.3 Current problems of non-destructive quality control of rocket and space technology production................................. .......................................... BIBLIOGRAPHY...... ........................................................ ................................ INTRODUCTION The creation of rocket and space technology was one of the outstanding scientific and technical achievements of the twentieth century, which allowed begin the research, development and practical use of outer space. Our Fatherland is a pioneer in the field of space exploration - we were the first to launch an artificial Earth satellite, human flight into space, opening the era of space exploration.

The achievements of domestic scientists in this field have received worldwide recognition.

Currently, there is not a single area of ​​human activity in which space technologies are not used.

The emergence of space technologies is due to the possibility of using space assets, the creation of which is associated with the development of many branches of science and technology, the use of almost all achievements of scientific and technological progress, and significant expenditures of material, financial, time and human resources.

With the help of space means, the following important results were obtained in various branches of human activity:

Expanding telephony and information technology capabilities;

Providing television communications between continents;

Global meteorological control using satellites, which has dramatically increased the accuracy of weather forecasts;

Improving navigation of ships and aircraft;

Search and detection of sea, air and ground objects in distress;

Global and local environmental control (monitoring) of the land surface and oceans;

Providing geodesy, cartography, mineral exploration, detection of fires and other natural disasters, etc.

The solution to specific problems of the exploration and use of outer space is achieved during the operation of space systems or space complexes for the corresponding purpose. In general, a space system is the highest level of functional integration of space assets designed to solve problems in space and from space, and includes all orbital and ground components necessary to obtain the required target result by consumers.

In terms of the variety of tasks to be solved, as well as the quantitative composition of the space assets used, a special place in the structure of the space complex is occupied by the rocket and space complex (RSC), designed to provide solutions to the problems of ground operation of launch vehicles, spacecraft and upper stages. One of the key tasks of the RSC is preparing a space rocket for launch and launching the spacecraft into a given orbit.

The textbook is an attempt to consider the basics of the design and operation of rocket and space rockets, their purpose, composition, tasks, general information about the design and operating features of its components, as well as the role and place of quality control of rocket and space technology products during production and operation.

Textbook “Basics of design of rocket and space complexes”

is intended for the preparation of masters in the field of training "Rocket systems and cosmonautics" in the field of training 160400. "Quality control of products of rocket and space complexes" and can be used as part of the educational process in the discipline "Fundamentals of design of rocket and space complexes", and can also be useful for graduate students and teachers engaged in research work in this subject area.

As a result of studying the proposed discipline “Fundamentals of the design of rocket and space complexes,” masters should know the basics of constructing rocket and space complexes for various purposes and their components, the basics of designing rocket and space complexes as objects of control during their production and operation, and the basic principles of the functioning of rocket and space complexes of various types. intended purpose;

be able to analyze the current state of RKT products and quality control processes for products of rocket and space complexes, analyze the testability of products of rocket and space complexes during their production and operation;

justify the applicability of new methods for quality control of RKK products, taking into account the features of their construction and preparation technology; preparing a space rocket for launch and launching a spacecraft into a given orbit.

In information and logical terms, the discipline develops the disciplines of the general scientific and professional cycles, and serves as an informational and methodological basis for the study of special disciplines of the master's curriculum, as well as a methodological basis for preparing and writing a master's thesis.

SECTION 1. BASICS OF CONSTRUCTION OF ROCKET AND SPACE COMPLEXES 1 BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT SPACE SYSTEMS.

STRUCTURE OF THE SPACE SYSTEM AND SPACE COMPLEX The solution to specific problems of the exploration and use of outer space is achieved during the operation of space systems or space complexes for the corresponding purpose. In general, a space system is the highest level of functional integration of space assets designed to solve problems in space and from space, and includes all orbital and ground components necessary to obtain the required target result by consumers.

Structure of the space system 1. To solve socio-economic problems, communications, navigation, geodesy, meteorology, etc. CSs have been created and operated; to ensure the country's defense - communications and combat control, reconnaissance, missile attack warning, etc. CSs.

Any CS (Figure 1.1) includes space assets, which can be divided into two groups:

KS KK SpK Figure 1.1 – Structure of the space system means that ensure the creation, expansion, operation and replenishment of spacecraft exhaust gas, united by the term “space complex”;

technical means of space information consumer, united by the term “special space system complex (SPS)”.

In general, a CC may include several CCs. The composition, purpose and functions of the CC will be discussed in clause 1.2.

The SpK includes technical means and structures with equipment placed in them, designed to receive special information from the spacecraft, register it, process it, store it and transmit it to consumers. SpK funds are located in the relevant centers for receiving and processing information of the federal bodies of the Russian Federation, the main headquarters of the Armed Forces and other consumers.

The operation diagram of the CS is presented in Figure 1.2.

The RLV prepared at the technical and launch complexes launches the spacecraft into a given orbit. All data on the operation of the on-board equipment of the launch vehicle enters the measuring complex of the cosmodrome for subsequent analysis. Information about the functioning of the spacecraft's onboard systems is supplied to the command and measurement complexes (CMS) and then to the Flight Control Center, which issues the necessary commands to the spacecraft control system. Special (target) information is sent to the SpK. If the spacecraft includes return elements (landing module, descent capsules), then their search, maintenance and delivery to the consumer is carried out by the landing and maintenance complex (LMC), which is part of the spacecraft.

The OG of the spacecraft is part of the spacecraft not directly, but as an integral part of the space complex. However, the quality of the CS functioning largely depends on the structure of the orbital group.

Let us consider the structure of the OG spacecraft using the example of the space navigation and communications system “GLONASS”, consisting of 24 spacecraft, placed 8 spacecraft each in three phase planes, which differ from each other in the longitude of the ascending node of the orbit. In each phase plane, the spacecraft are located in a circular orbit, the elements of which have the following characteristics:

inclination 650;

altitude 19,100 km;

circulation period 11 hours 15 minutes. This construction allows for the continuous solution of target problems to alternately use spacecraft that are located in different phase planes.

Thus, if the first phase plane has ascending node longitude 1 = 00, then the second and third planes will have ascending node longitude 2 = 1200 and 3 = 2400, respectively. Therefore, the launch time of the ILV for launching the spacecraft into different phase planes should differ by hours (24 hours / 3 = 8 hours), for example, 00.00.00, 8.00.00 and 16.00.00 Moscow maternity time (UHF). To ensure the specified accuracy of spacecraft insertion (the absolute error in the longitude of the ascending node of the phase planes is, as a rule, no more than 10), the launch delay of the launch vehicle (the so-called launch window) should not exceed 4 minutes (24 60 1/360 = 4 min).

Spacecraft in the phase plane should be located at equidistant distances from each other. If we assume that it is possible to launch all 8 spacecraft of the same phase plane during the day, then the spacecraft launches should be carried out in 1 hour 24 minutes 22.5 seconds (11 hours 15 minutes / 8 = 1 hour min 22.5 s). Thus, if the first spacecraft is launched at 00.00 UHF, then the last one, Figure 1.2 - Operational diagram of the eighth space system, should be launched at 9 hours 50 minutes 37.5 UHF (1 hour 24 minutes 22.5 s (8 1) = 9 h 50 min 37.5 s).

The formation of the spacecraft exhaust gas occurs as follows. A block consisting of three spacecraft is launched by one Proton launch vehicle to the location of the 2nd spacecraft.

Therefore, the launch time of the launch vehicle is 1 hour 24 minutes 22.5 s UHF. Then the 1st and 3rd spacecraft are moved to adjacent points using a corrective propulsion system.

To continue the formation of this phase plane, the next block of three spacecraft can be launched only after a day (or any integer number of days) and must be launched to the point of the 5th spacecraft (launch time of the launch vehicle - at 5 hours 37 minutes 52.5 s UHF) . Then the 4th and 6th spacecraft are deployed to adjacent points.

In practice, the creation of a full orbital constellation of spacecraft takes a long period, calculated in years. The construction and expansion of a group of spacecraft is carried out simultaneously in all phase planes.

This is due to the fact that, having a group of 12 spacecraft (4 in each phase plane), it is possible to use the GLONASS system for its intended purpose up to 18 hours a day.

Now let's briefly look at the features of some of the most widely used CS.

Space communication systems 1. The modern era is characterized by rapid growth of information in all spheres of human activity. In addition to the development of traditional means of information transmission (telephony, telegraphy, radio broadcasting), there was a need to create new types of information - television, data exchange in automatic control systems and computers, transmission of matrices for printing newspapers, etc.

The global nature of economic problems and scientific research, broad interstate integration and cooperation in production, trade, research activities, and the expansion of exchange in the field of culture have led to a significant increase in international and intercontinental relations, including the exchange of television programs.

The construction of long-distance terrestrial and submarine cable lines requires huge expenditures of all types of resources. Radio communications have significantly greater capacity, range, and the ability to be configured for various types of communications. However, radio links have certain disadvantages that make their use difficult in many cases. New ways to overcome the inherent shortcomings of long-distance radio communications have been opened up by the launch of spacecraft into the orbits of artificial Earth satellites and the creation of a space communication system on their basis.

The space communication system (SCS) is designed to provide all types of long-distance communications (long-distance, international, intercontinental), radio and television broadcasting, information transmission on the Internet, etc. The SCS is also called a satellite communication system.

Practice has confirmed that the use of spacecraft for communications, especially long-distance international and intercontinental, television and telecontrol, when transmitting large volumes of information, allows one to eliminate many of the difficulties inherent in traditional radio communications. In this case, it is possible to use passive or active relaying.

To organize radio communications in the VHF range over a sufficiently large area, it is necessary to create a large number of intermediate repeaters. Since the spacecraft can be observed simultaneously from several points between which communication must be established, it can be used to relay a radio signal. The simplest solution is to use the spacecraft as an object that reflects radio waves directed at it. This principle underlies the passive relay method (Figure 1.3).

Communication spacecraft Figure 1.3 – Communication diagram using a communication spacecraft using the passive relay method A, B – transmitting and receiving points operating at frequency f1;

A1, B1 – transmitting and receiving points operating at frequency f A communication session is possible only when the communication spacecraft is in the zone of simultaneous visibility of the transmitter and receiver, and their antennas are oriented towards the spacecraft. A signal with frequency f1 from transmitter A is transmitted in the direction of the spacecraft. The spacecraft's onboard equipment receives the signal, amplifies it and relays it at frequency f1 towards receiver B, which ensures signal reception, amplification and use.

Despite the obvious simplicity, low cost and certain technical advantages of such a CSS (the possibility of simultaneous operation of a large number of correspondents, the dependence of the communication quality only on the reflectivity of the spacecraft), it has serious disadvantages. In particular, to maintain stable communications, high transmitting power and high sensitivity of receiving ground-based devices are required. But even when these conditions are met, radio lines do not operate stable enough, with a lot of interference. In addition, the period of active existence of such spacecraft due to changes in their shape and deterioration of reflective properties turned out to be short. Therefore, the principle of passive reflection has not found further development in space communication systems.

The principle of using spacecraft communication with active relay has become established and widespread. In this case, the communication system works as follows (Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4 – Scheme of communication using a communication spacecraft using the active relay method ZSV1 – zone of joint visibility of the communication spacecraft by points A and B at orbit altitude H1;

ZSV2 – zone of joint visibility of the communication spacecraft by points A and B at orbit altitude H2;

f1 – transmission frequency before retransmission;

f2 – transmission frequency after retransmission Station I, located at point A, through the corresponding intermediate ground systems (antennas) sends signals with frequency f1 in the direction A-C to the communication spacecraft located in the visibility zone of points A and B.

On the spacecraft, these signals are received, amplified and retransmitted, but at frequency f2 in the direction S-B. At point B, the received signals are processed and sent via terrestrial communication channels to station II.

The need for the spacecraft repeater to receive and transmit large flows of information at frequency f1 leads to the need for a broadband receiving device, into which, along with the useful signal, interference also penetrates. Interference amplified and transmitted at frequency f2 degrades the quality of communication. Therefore, modern repeaters are equipped with processing devices (filters) that clear the useful signal from interference.

The principle of space communications with active relay involves installing appropriate antennas, receiving and transmitting devices, as well as power supplies on the spacecraft. This makes it possible to significantly reduce the transmitting power and sensitivity of receiving ground devices.

One of the key issues is the parameters of the spacecraft orbits. To organize global continuous communication in our country, located in the northern hemisphere, it is advisable to use highly elliptical orbits with an orbital period of 12 hours to place spacecraft. One spacecraft, going to apogee and returning to perigee, can provide mutual visibility of our western and Far Eastern territories for 8 hours. To ensure continuity of communication, four spacecraft are included in the spacecraft system in highly elliptical orbits, since according to control technology, one hour is spent checking the state of the spacecraft by telemetry, turning on the repeater and “pulling” it into mode when entering the visibility zone, as well as telemetry and switching off when leaving the visibility zone.

In certain radio wave ranges, the needs for communication organization are not met by the capacity of the channels (trunks) of one spacecraft (relay satellite). In this regard, there was a need to increase the number of spacecraft in the OG and to separate service areas for them. It turned out that the largest number of subscribers are located in the band of 40° - 60° northern and southern latitudes and for these purposes it is most convenient to organize communications using spacecraft located in geostationary orbits (Figure 1.5). The points indicated in the figure correspond to the position of the spacecraft in orbit during the day.

Communication spacecraft Communication spacecraft Figure 1.5 – Orbital position of communication spacecraft in highly elliptical and geostationary orbits: 0 – 24 – hours of the day Let us characterize the spacecraft included in the CSS. Four Molniya-type spacecraft

(Figure 1.6) in a highly elliptical orbit and four Horizon-type spacecraft

(Figure 1.7) or “Screen” (Figure 1.8) in geostationary orbit provide (with reserve) the organization of global communications in the northern hemisphere, and in the southern hemisphere - up to a latitude of 60°.

Molniya communication satellites are equipped with two types of equipment: service (service) and special. Service onboard equipment includes systems, instruments and general-purpose units that ensure the operability of the spacecraft, monitoring its condition and controlling it in flight, regardless of the nature of the tasks performed.

Figure 1.6 – Communications spacecraft “Molniya-2”

Figure 1.7 – Communications spacecraft “Horizon”

Figure 1.8 – Communications spacecraft “Ekran”

The composition and purpose of the service onboard equipment, which, as a rule, is the same for most spacecraft, will be discussed in paragraph 1.5.

The special onboard equipment on the Molniya spacecraft includes:

antennas for receiving and transmitting signals Earth - board - Earth and the tracking and drive systems of antenna devices associated with their operation. The spacecraft has two parabolic antennas of a folding mesh structure, which open after the spacecraft enters orbit. During the entire flight, the antennas are oriented towards the center of the Earth;

a repeater consisting of receiving, converting and amplifying devices. The satellite has three repeaters:

the main one and two reserve ones, replacing the main one if necessary.

Monitoring the position of the spacecraft in space, measuring motion parameters, determining the parameters of the orbit and its adjustment, predicting the motion of the spacecraft, checking the condition and correct functioning of onboard systems and their diagnostics, monitoring the consumption of energy resources of the spacecraft and compliance with the established temperature regime, issuing current programs and one-time programs on board the spacecraft commands, control of their passage and execution, as well as some other management functions are performed by services and facilities of the ground control complex.

Ekran type satellites, the use of which began in 1976, are placed in geostationary orbit and are designed to provide television and radio broadcasting in remote regions. Thus, the service area of ​​the Ekran spacecraft with a position of 90° east extends from Novosibirsk to Yakutsk. This ensures direct reception of signals from the spacecraft to small collective antennas of a simplified type, installed directly on the roofs of houses. During installation, they are oriented towards the geostationary spacecraft with an accuracy of 1-3°.

Note that the “standing” of the Ekran spacecraft over a given service area must be ensured with high accuracy: about 0.5°-1° in latitude and longitude. If necessary, the orbit is adjusted using onboard control micromotors. Also, high demands are placed on attitude control systems: the deviation of the spacecraft from the established direction should not exceed 0.1o. Modern space technology can provide such accuracy. Errors in the orientation of on-board antennas significantly reduce the service area. Thus, if their orientation is incorrect by 1°, the television service area will be only about 60% of the maximum possible value.

To ensure high signal quality, modern communications satellites use highly directional onboard antennas with a beam width from 17° (global coverage) to 2°-4°.

Since 1967, on the basis of the Molniya satellite, our country has operated the Orbita space television network (Figure 1.9).

Television signals from the television center in Moscow are transmitted via terrestrial communication channels to one of the ground stations of the Molniya KSS and, through its antenna, are radiated to the Molniya spacecraft. Here they are received and relayed immediately to all receiving stations of the Orbit network that are currently within the visibility range of the spacecraft. Received from the spacecraft by the Orbita station

television signals are sent via broadband cable lines to local television centers, which, using their transmitters and television antennas, relay the television program to television receivers in the region.

Figure 1.9 – Scheme of television broadcasts using the Molniya spacecraft

in the Orbita system

A – television center of central television;

B – terrestrial communication channel;

B – communication point of the Molniya ground complex;

G – communications satellite “Molniya”;

D – receiving station of the Orbita network;

E - local television centers and their coverage areas Stations of the Orbita network are located in round reinforced concrete buildings, the roofs of which serve as the foundation for highly efficient parabolic antennas with a mirror diameter of 12 m. The relatively small size of the mirror, the lightness and simplicity of the antenna design are due to the fairly high power of the spacecraft transmitter " Lightning".

Permissible speed range of the Orbit ground antenna

ensures reliable tracking of the spacecraft at any altitudes and azimuths of its position relative to the station.

Calculations show that the communications spacecraft is located in a highly elliptical orbit with the following parameters: inclination i = 65;

perigee altitude Hn = 400 km, apogee altitude Na = 40,000 km, orbital period T = 12 hours, capable of ensuring simultaneous visibility of the spacecraft in the western and eastern regions of the Russian Federation for 8 hours.

Military command and control units play a major role in command and control.

Thus, their use in the operational link “association - connection”

provides an increase in communication range up to 10,000 km and information transmission speed up to 1500 bit/s.

The use of CSS has made it possible to make a qualitative leap in the organization of communications. Thus, mobile communications, which until recently seemed so exotic, have firmly entered into life and become available to millions of people within literally one decade. The development of the CSN will be aimed at further ensuring global stable and continuous communication of subscribers at various levels, increasing the capacity of communication networks and organizing multi-level telecommunication spaces.

Space navigation systems 1. On Earth, on sea routes and in near-Earth space, the number of controlled objects constantly in need of navigation support—accurate determination of their location, course and speed—is constantly increasing. The current level and, in particular, the prospects for the development of transport are characterized by a significant expansion of communication zones and an increase in the speed of vehicles: supersonic speeds have been mastered in civil aviation, the speeds of sea and ocean liners have significantly increased, international airlines cross vast spaces covering the entire globe. The Arctic and Antarctic, penetration to the center of which until recently was an act of heroism and courage, have become an ordinary field of transport routes. As the volume, efficiency and significance of transport tasks increase, the requirements for the quality of navigation support increase. Many objects require very frequent navigational determinations with high accuracy at any time, regardless of weather conditions. High speeds of moving objects necessitate navigation determinations in a limited time, and often in real time.

Therefore, high demands are placed on modern navigation support, the main of which are:

globality, i.e. the ability to perform navigation determinations anywhere on the globe or near-Earth space at any time of the day, regardless of weather conditions;

efficiency, i.e. the ability to perform navigation determinations in minutes and even seconds (ideally in real time);

accuracy of navigation definitions.

Any methods of navigation support for various objects are based on measurements of their location relative to any landmarks with known coordinates.

Traditional celestial navigation methods use the Sun, Moon, and stars as landmarks;

in methods of terrestrial radio navigation - radio beacons with fixed known coordinates;

in magnetic methods - the Earth's poles.

Artificial space bodies can also be used as such landmarks, for example, spacecraft located in the orbits of artificial Earth satellites, if their coordinates are known to the objects whose location and speed need to be determined.

It is impossible to fully ensure the fulfillment of the listed requirements for globality, efficiency and accuracy through the development of only traditional navigation methods. This is due to the fact that many of them depend on weather conditions, and the use of radio beacons does not allow covering all the required areas.

Systems in which spacecraft located in the orbits of artificial Earth satellites are selected as reference points are called space navigation systems (SNS). They are designed to determine navigation parameters (location coordinates and velocity vector components) of moving objects (spacecraft, aircraft, ship, mobile missile system, etc.) and transmit these parameters to the consumer. CNSs are distinguished by a number of features that can significantly increase the efficiency of navigation support. Navigation determinations here are based on measurements of the parameters of radio signals emitted by the spacecraft. In this case, you can use the VHF range, in which the most accurate measuring devices can be used, providing high accuracy in measuring the range and the rate of change of this range relative to the spacecraft.

The globality of the SNS can be achieved by including a sufficient number of navigation satellites into the system, ensuring the possibility of their continuous observation at any point in near-Earth space.

Increased efficiency is achieved due to the possibility of simultaneous observation of several spacecraft.

The CNS includes the following components (Figure 1.10):

CC, including spacecraft OG and ground control complex (GCU);

Special means for objects that require navigation determination, designed to receive the necessary information from the spacecraft, measure navigation parameters and calculate the location and speed of movement of this object.

Ground stations of the NKU carry out measurements of the navigation parameters of the spacecraft. Via communication lines, these measurements are transmitted to the computer center, where, based on their processing, orbital parameters and various corrections are determined and predicted (for example, the value of the time scale of the spacecraft onboard clock, etc.).

Orbital parameters for each predicted moment in time, which are usually called spacecraft ephemeris, and various corrections are transmitted via communication channels to the command transmission station. The station transmits them at a certain frequency to the spacecraft, where they are recorded in a memory block. Each navigation spacecraft receives its own ephemeris information, since the orbital parameters of different spacecraft and the drift of the onboard clock will be different.

KA-2 KA-KA-KA- Figure 1.10 – Block diagram of SPS 1 – measuring instruments NAKU;

2 – ephemeris information transmission stations;

~ 3 – computer center;

4 – consumers;

D – range;

D – radial speed Each navigation spacecraft continuously emits radio signals and transmits ephemeris information in real time.

The consumer, using radio equipment, receives ephemeris and time signals and simultaneously measures the navigation parameters of the spacecraft (one or more). The consumer's computing device processes the received information, calculates its location (and, if required, the speed of its movement) and introduces corrections to the data of inertial or other traditional navigation systems, if the CNS is used in conjunction with them.

The accuracy of determining the consumer's location and its speed depends on the errors in determining the ephemeris, the accuracy of the onboard clock, geometric factors characterizing the relative position of the spacecraft, and, finally, on the errors in measuring the navigation parameters by the consumer.

Thus, for the GLONASS navigation system, the description of which is given in paragraph 1.1, the following technical characteristics are given:

accuracy of determining the coordinates of a moving object – 100 m;

accuracy of determining the coordinates of a stationary object – 10 m;

accuracy of determining the components of the consumer’s velocity vector – 0.15 m/s;

accuracy of ephemeris time reference to universal time – 5 ms;

the time of the first navigation determination is 1-3 minutes, subsequent determinations are 1-10 s.

Space navigation systems will be developed towards creation at a qualitatively new level in the interests of solving a wide range of problems of navigation of moving objects, high-precision geolocation during construction, geological surveys, during cadastral work, control over the transportation of valuable cargo, emergency rescue operations, etc. Navigation support will become individual in nature. Tools that make it possible to combine digital maps with high-precision reference to the current position of moving and stationary objects, determined using CNS, with means of transmitting their own coordinate signals, are becoming increasingly widespread. In the future, CNS will become firmly established in everyday life.

Space meteorological systems 1. Information about the environment is provided by ground-based federal and departmental meteorological networks, which include aviation, ship, aerostat meteorological equipment, automatic hydrometeorological stations (ocean, sea, river, ground) and space meteorological systems (SMS).

The ground hydrometeorological network consists of several thousand meteorological and hydrological stations and posts. Many of them are located in hard-to-reach areas. To compile long-term and sufficiently accurate weather forecasts, information from the ground-based meteorological network is clearly insufficient. This is largely due to the fact that 71% of the Earth's surface is oceans and seas, and the remaining 29% of the surface contains huge areas (mountains, deserts, jungles, etc.) where weather stations are rare or non-existent. This significantly reduces the quality of the weather forecast.

The network for international exchange of hydrological information is also underdeveloped.

Obtaining meteorological information with the help of aviation, ship and balloon meteorological equipment is still carried out sporadically and only along certain routes.

The successful development of space technology has contributed to the creation of CMS, which can significantly increase the ability to obtain hydrometeorological information in comparison with traditional means and improve the quality of forecasting.

KMS is designed to solve the following problems:

Obtaining images of the cloud fields of the globe, monitoring the origin and development of atmospheric processes (cyclones, hurricanes, etc.), recognizing warm and cold air masses;

Obtaining the vertical distribution of temperature and atmospheric air velocity;

Study of the radiation balance of the earth-atmosphere system;

Collection of information from automatic weather stations located in hard-to-reach areas of the Earth and the World Ocean, and from balloons, with subsequent transmission of this information to the appropriate receiving points or weather centers;

Retransmission of processed information from meteorological centers to consumers;

Providing meteorological information to the commands of the branches of the RF Armed Forces.

The structure of a typical space meteorological system is presented in Figure 1.11.

The orbital constellation most often consists of 3 spacecraft in geostationary orbit, providing visibility of 90% of the earth's surface, and 1 2 spacecraft in circumpolar orbits with apogee altitudes of 700-2000 km.

Ground command-receiving stations KMS give commands to transmit information from the spacecraft, receive it and transmit it to the weather center.

Figure 1.11 – Structure of the space meteorological system 1 – meteorological spacecraft;

2 – balloons;

3 – automatic hydrometeorological stations;

4 – stations for direct reception of information;

5 – local weather centers;

6 – consumers of meteorological information;

– trajectory measurement stations;

8, 9 – command and receiving stations;

10 – meteorological center;

11 – orbit control and programming;

12 – data processing;

13 – weather analysis and forecast;

14 – local analysis and forecast;

15 – planetary analysis and forecast Trajectory measurement stations NKU carry out radio monitoring and forecasting of orbits, sending calculation results to the meteorological center, where programs for command and receiving stations are developed based on them. The weather center prepares planetary analysis and weather forecasts using data from command-receiving stations, trajectory measurement stations and ground-based weather stations.

Regional and local weather centers produce local weather analysis and forecasts using data from the spacecraft and from the weather center.

The diagram of the domestic CMS “Meteor” is presented in Figure 1.12. It functions as an integral part of the World Weather Watch. The OG includes 2-3 Meteor spacecraft located in a subpolar orbit, close to circular, with the following parameters: orbital inclination i = 82.5o;

orbit altitude h =1200-1300 km. Information from the Meteor spacecraft is transmitted via global radio communication systems to all member countries of the World Meteorological Organization. The time of active existence of the spacecraft is 2 years.

Spacecraft of the Meteor series (Figure 1.13) quickly collect and transmit to consumers global hydrometeorological information, data on the radiation situation in near-Earth space and the state of the ozonosphere. This information is the basis for making long-term forecasts of various weather phenomena and makes it possible to prevent material damage due to bad weather conditions amounting to about one billion rubles annually.

Figure 1.12 – Diagram of the Meteor meteorological system

Figure 1.13 – Meteorological satellite “Meteor”

The Meteor spacecraft provides solutions to the following tasks:

obtaining in the visible and infrared (IR) range images of clouds, the Earth's surface, ice and snow covers, as well as data for determining the temperature of the sea surface in a cloudless atmosphere and the radiation temperature of the underlying surface;

obtaining spectrometric data to determine the vertical temperature profile, vertical distribution of ozone concentration and its total content in the atmosphere;

carrying out radiation measurements at spacecraft flight altitude;

accumulation and transmission according to the program or by commands to the Main Center for Reception and Processing of Data and Regional Centers for Reception and Processing of Data in the mode of reproduction and direct transmission of scientific information;

continuous transmission to information receiving points of local images of clouds and the Earth's surface in the visible and IR ranges of the spectrum in the mode of direct information transmission, switching on and functioning at any turn of all equipment in accordance with the work program.

Transmission of local images of clouds and the Earth's surface in the visible and IR ranges from the spacecraft to points receiving meteorological information is carried out in real time.

Television and infrared images make it possible to identify features of the structure of cloud fields that are inaccessible to observations from a ground-based network of stations, and to draw conclusions not only about the position, but also about the evolution of the corresponding synoptic objects and air masses. Using this information allows you to obtain a reliable forecast for a period of up to a day.

Actinometric equipment designed to measure radiation fluxes escaping from the Earth is also installed on board the spacecraft.

Prospects for the development of CMS are associated with improving the quality of weather forecasts, increasing the duration of reliable forecasting to 10 days or more, reducing damage from hazardous weather phenomena such as typhoons, hurricanes, storms by increasing the accuracy with which the areas of action of these phenomena and parameters are determined. characterizing their emergence and development.

Space missile attack warning systems 1. The creation of missile attack warning systems (MSWS) was determined, first of all, by the need to detect launches of ballistic missiles (nuclear weapons carriers) aimed at the territory of the country. This allowed the country's top military-political leadership to receive timely information about the start of the use of nuclear missile weapons by the enemy.

The main tasks solved by early warning systems in our country and in the United States are generally similar:

early detection of ballistic missile launches from the territory of a potential enemy and submarine patrol areas.

assessment of the coordinates of ballistic missile launches and determination of possible areas where warheads will fall.

monitoring range tests and training launches of ballistic missiles, as well as monitoring the launches of space objects.

control of nuclear strikes against potential enemy targets in wartime.

intelligence testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere in peacetime.

Spacecraft that are part of the domestic missile attack early warning system operate in highly elliptical and geostationary orbits. An OG spacecraft can consist of 4 to 6 spacecraft in geostationary or highly elliptical orbits.

The early warning system is constantly on alert and keeps the main missile-hazardous areas of the globe under control. Over each of these areas (the territory of the USA, Europe, the Pacific and Atlantic oceans) there are 1-2 spacecraft. Information from spacecraft located over the eastern hemisphere arrives at the information receiving point, as well as at mobile receiving stations. From other satellites - relayed to the territory of Russia through the KSS satellite.

The spacecraft provide almost continuous control of the territory globally in longitude and latitude approximately 80 0 S. – 800 N. The time required to detect a ballistic missile launch does not exceed 1 minute, and after 2-3 minutes information about the launch is sent to the consumer. Special equipment installed on the spacecraft makes it possible to determine the coordinates of the launch of a ballistic missile with a maximum error of 20 km, and the location of the fall of the warheads - with a maximum error of about 100 km.

The main directions for improving early warning systems are related to increasing the reliability of control of missile-hazardous areas, the speed of delivery of information to consumers, the accuracy of determining the coordinates of the launch site and the landing sites of the warheads.

Space surveillance systems 1. Features of waging wars and armed conflicts at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries showed that the role and scale of the use of space assets in solving problems of military confrontation is constantly increasing. This is evidenced by the participation of more than 130 states in space activities. 35 of them are working on programs to use space assets for military purposes, and 17 have their own space programs.

The primary tasks for which space assets began to be used in the interests of defense were the tasks of photo and radio reconnaissance, for which space reconnaissance systems (SRS) were created. Later, as the tasks and capabilities of spacecraft expanded, they began to be called space observation systems (SOS).

The classification of observation spacecraft is shown in Figure 1.14.

In addition to reconnaissance and target designation, the RAC solves the problems of monitoring arms reduction treaties, providing space information to all levels of command and control, monitoring areas of local wars and major exercises, etc.

SPACE OBSERVATION VEHICLES reconnaissance socio-economic species-specific environmental monitoring photographic weather observation infrared radio topography laser radio geodesy television rescue service optical-electronic Figure 1.14 – Classification of observation spacecraft Let's consider some types of modern SSR.

Radio and electronic intelligence systems are designed for detailed radio and electronic surveillance in the interests of the Ministry of Defense. They solve the following problems:

determination of the location, main characteristics and features of the functioning of radio-electronic equipment (RES) of a potential enemy;

constant monitoring of the operating modes of air and space surveillance electronic systems, communication and command and control centers, as well as changes in the general radio-electronic situation in theaters of military operations;

interception of telemetric information during testing of ballistic missiles of a potential enemy.

In the Russian Federation, a unified radio surveillance system has been created to carry out these tasks. The main method of combat use of the system is the advance deployment and maintenance of continuous operation of the OG spacecraft installed in peacetime and wartime in orbits with the following parameters: inclination i = 82.50;

maximum (minimum) altitude Hmax = 680 km (Hmin = 648 km);

circulation period T =97, min. The guaranteed period of active life of the spacecraft is 12 months.

The system receives and analyzes signals from active radiation sources, i.e. signals from radio communications and direction finding, at frequencies up to MHz. With a viewing area of ​​400, the special equipment of the spacecraft ensures the accuracy of georeferencing the radio station on the ground up to 3-5 m. At the same time, the processing time of information by onboard means is 180 s, which ensures high efficiency.

Optical and optical-electronic reconnaissance systems are designed for optical-electronic surveillance of the activities of the armed forces of a potential enemy. They solve the following problems:

systematic monitoring of the state and nature of the functioning of strategic objects;

clarification of the results of planned periodic reconnaissance of strategic objects and territories;

control of the location and activities of mobile objects of strategic strike forces;

prompt clarification of data on the situation in areas of local conflicts and crisis situations;

reconnaissance of maneuver areas of potential enemy troops;

systematic monitoring of the deployment and movement of troops and military equipment;

control of the use of nuclear weapons on enemy territories and facilities.

To detect, identify, decipher and describe various strategic objects, optical and optical-electronic reconnaissance equipment must have a sufficiently high resolution.

Some characteristics are given in table. 1.1.

From the analysis of the table it follows that equipment with a resolution of 3–5 m will allow detection of all objects. For decoding and description, equipment with a resolution of about 0.5 m will be required.

Table 1.1 - Required resolution of optical and optical-electronic reconnaissance equipment, m Object Detection Identification Decryption Description Bridges 6 4.5 1.5 0, Radar stations 3 0.9 0.3 0, Communication centers 3 1.5 0.3 0, Material warehouses 1.5 0.6 0.3 0, Locations 6 2.1 1.2 0, military units Military airfields - 90 4.5 1, Military equipment 6 4.3 3 0, air bases Artillery and tactical 0.9 0.6 0.15 0, missiles Aircraft 4.5 1.5 0.9 0, Headquarters 3 1.5 0.9 0, Surface-to-surface missiles 3 1.5 0.6 0, ground", anti-aircraft installations Medium-sized ships 7.5 4.5 0.6 0, Submarines on 30 6 1.5 0, surface Vehicles 1.5 0.6 0.3 0, Minefields 9 6 0.9 0, Ports 30 15 6 Coastlines and areas 30 4.5 3 1, amphibious landings Roads 9 6 1.8 0, Urban areas 60 30 3 The optical-electronic reconnaissance satellite orbital group consists of 2 4 spacecraft in low polar orbits ( inclination i = 90-1000;

perigee height Hp = 300 km and apogee Ha = 1000 km), orbital constellation of radar reconnaissance satellites - of 2-4 spacecraft in circular orbits (inclination i = 60-700;

altitude H = 700-800 km).

Modern ground-based space reconnaissance systems are capable of processing and presenting information to commanders of military formations up to a battalion (division), inclusive, from all types of space reconnaissance, except photo reconnaissance, within a time interval of up to 60 minutes.

An analysis of the military operations of the United States and its allies in the Persian Gulf and Iraq in 1990–1991, 1998 and 2003, in the Balkans in 1998 and Afghanistan in 2002 allows us to conclude that space information systems (intelligence, communications, navigation, surveying) and meteorological support) plays a leading role in combat support of troops. The events in the Persian Gulf in 1991 (Operation Desert Storm) became the first experience in the use of space assets in all phases of the operation. Up to 90% of information about the armed forces of Iraq came to the forces of the joint coalition from space systems for various purposes. During the hostilities, the OG consisting of 90 spacecraft was involved. The main tasks assigned to the control bodies of the space command in the conflict area were related to reconnaissance, communications, navigation, topographic and geodetic and meteorological support, and assessment of the results of the destruction of enemy targets. The most significant role was played by US space reconnaissance assets. By the beginning of hostilities, the OG reconnaissance spacecraft included spacecraft, of which 4 were species (optical and radar), and the rest were radio and electronic reconnaissance. The use of space reconnaissance made it possible to uncover almost all ground forces facilities, the air force basing system, missile units, as well as military-economic potential facilities.

Military operations in the Balkans (1998) and Iraq (2003) were accompanied by the use by the United States and its allies of about 120 spacecraft for various purposes. Space communications systems were used by all command levels, including a battalion (division), an individual strategic bomber, a reconnaissance aircraft, an AWACS early warning aircraft, and a warship. More than 500 space communication system stations were deployed in the conflict zone. In addition, the international space communications system Intelsat was used.

Meteorological systems provided images of the earth's surface with a resolution of about 600 m and the study of the state of the atmosphere to compile short- and medium-term weather forecasts in the area of ​​​​military operations, which made it possible to draw up planned flight tables and quickly correct them.

Coalition forces made extensive use of the navigation field created by the Navstar space navigation system. The use of navigation information from the CNS by cruise missile control systems ensured a reduction in the probable circular deviation from 150 m to 15 m, i.e. accuracy increased 10 times.

The experience of using domestic space information systems during the counter-terrorist operation in Chechnya also confirmed the importance of space support for military operations of troops.

In recent years, especially during periods of conflict, integrated interservice intelligence and weapons systems have been created in our country and in the United States.

The concept of joint and interconnected in time and space use of aviation reconnaissance and destruction systems, space reconnaissance means, integrated into a single system, is a qualitatively new stage in the development of high-precision reconnaissance and destruction systems.

Integration of information spacecraft with weapon systems, the use of civilian spacecraft to solve military problems and vice versa (dual-use spacecraft), focus on the creation of small and ultra-small spacecraft, highly maneuverable means of launching them are increasingly used in the organization and conduct of armed struggle.

One of the key tasks that modern military CSRs must provide is information support from space for the actions of the armed forces. This suggests the following two directions for the development of the CS.

The first direction is the creation of a CSR with high operational-tactical characteristics (accuracy, resolution, productivity, survivability, etc.).

The second direction is to bring space information to the lower levels of management, and in the future, to every soldier.

The technical basis of the first direction is the improvement of the key component of the space system - the space complex.

Let us briefly consider the purpose and composition of the CC.

2 PURPOSE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ROCKET AND SPACE COMPLEX Space complex: purpose and composition of the main parts 2. The space complex is a set of functionally interconnected orbital and ground-based technical means designed to solve problems in space and from space as part of the space system.

CC is designed to solve the following problems:

1) preparation and launch of the spacecraft into a given orbit;

2) acceptance of the spacecraft for control based on telemetric information about the correspondence of the orbital parameters to the specified values ​​and the state of the onboard systems of the spacecraft;

3) putting the spacecraft into flight operation and decommissioning the spacecraft;

4) control of the orbital flight of the spacecraft, monitoring the condition and assessing the quality of functioning of the on-board systems of the spacecraft in flight;

5) performing targeted tasks in space and preparing information for delivery to the consumer;

6) detection and maintenance of spacecraft elements returning from orbit, as well as detachable parts of the launch vehicle;

7) maintaining the exhaust gas of the spacecraft in the required composition.

As noted above, the QC is an integral part of the CC.

The structure of the space complex is shown in Figure 2.1.

KK KPO OG KA RKK NKU Figure 2.1 – Structure of the space complex The space complex includes elements (components) that allow solving the above problems. The most important component of the space complex is the OG spacecraft - a set of spacecraft operating in orbit and intended to solve assigned tasks within the spacecraft. The composition of the OG may include one or more spacecraft.

As a rule, the name of the spacecraft included in the spacecraft is assigned to the spacecraft itself. For example, the Comet spacecraft and the Comet spacecraft.

Control of the orbital flight of a spacecraft (or an orbital unit (OB), which includes a spacecraft and an orbital unit), conducting communication sessions with a spacecraft, and predicting landing sites for descent vehicles and capsules is carried out by a ground control complex. NKU of various spacecraft are part of the ground-based automated control complex (GACS). Thus, NAKU controls all spacecraft (military, research and socio-economic purposes) at all stages of flight. NAKU includes mobile and stationary means of exchanging command software, telemetry and trajectory information with spacecraft, communication means, as well as means of automated collection and processing of information with the necessary mathematical and information support. NAKU facilities are located at the Central Command Post, central control posts for various types of spacecraft, a ballistic center, a teleinformation processing center and command and measurement complexes. To control the flight of manned spacecraft, a Flight Control Center was introduced into the NAKU.

The basis for flight control of any spacecraft is the flight mission, which determines the order and sequence of operation of the onboard systems of the spacecraft, taking into account the emerging needs of its operational change. Three groups of spacecraft flight control tasks can be distinguished:

1) orbit correction based on incoming trajectory information;

2) performing spacecraft maneuvers in accordance with the flight mission;

3) monitoring the functioning of on-board spacecraft systems based on telemetric information.

The search, detection, landing and post-flight maintenance of objects returned from orbit (descent vehicles (DS), capsules, stages of reusable launch vehicles, upper stages, etc.) and their delivery to consumers is carried out by the landing and maintenance complex. It should be noted that the KPO is not part of all spacecraft, but only those for which the presence of elements returned from orbit is provided.

The main objectives of KPO are:

search and detection of returned objects;

opening the vehicle, removing from them containers, capsules, blocks and other objects with storage media;

post-flight maintenance of returned items;

disembarkation of the crew from the spacecraft's SA and provision of first aid (if necessary);

loading the vehicle onto a vehicle and transporting it to its destination.

The KPO includes specially equipped aircraft, helicopters and other vehicles, surveillance equipment in the visible and infrared ranges and radio equipment for receiving and transmitting information.

The operation of KPO technical facilities is carried out by personnel of special search units and subdivisions of cosmodromes.

The rocket and space complex provides solutions to the problems of ground operation of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and upper bodies, the key of which is the preparation of the launch vehicle for launch and the launch of the spacecraft into a given orbit. In terms of the quantitative composition of the spacecraft included in its composition and the variety of tasks to be solved, the RSC occupies a special place in the structure of the space complex.

The composition and purpose of the main elements of the RSC should be considered in more detail, since they form the basis of the objects of the space structure of the cosmodrome.

2.2 Rocket and space complex: composition and purpose of the main elements The rocket and space complex is designed to prepare launch vehicles, spacecraft, upper bodies for their intended use and launch the spacecraft (OB) into low-Earth orbit.

An analysis of the functions performed by the RKK shows that all of them can be divided into two groups:

1) bringing the onboard systems of the launch vehicle, spacecraft, and booster into a state that allows the launch of the launch vehicle at the set time, placing the spacecraft into a given orbit and ensuring the functioning of the spacecraft in flight;

2) checking the technical condition of the on-board systems of the LV, spacecraft, RB and eliminating detected malfunctions.

The technology of all work carried out during the operation of the RSC is determined by the design of the KSr. The volume and duration of the process of preparing the launch vehicle, spacecraft, and upper body, the degree of automation of work and processing of their results characterize the operational excellence of the spacecraft. When operating the RSC, the following tasks are solved:

transportation of launch vehicles, spacecraft, upper bodies and components from the manufacturer or arsenal to the cosmodrome;

storage of LV, spacecraft, RB and components;

preparation of LV, spacecraft, RB at the technical complex and assembly of the ILV;

transportation of the rocket launcher to the launch complex;

preparation of the launch vehicle for launch at the launch complex, refueling of the launch vehicle (and upper vehicle) of the spacecraft, launch of the launch vehicle.

The RSC includes a space rocket (during its ground operation), technical, launch complexes, as well as a set of measuring instruments, collection and processing of information and a complex for the fall of detachable parts of the RKN (KPOCH).

Rocket and space complexes are universal and are part of various space complexes. The technical appearance of the RKK is determined by the launch vehicle. The name of the launch vehicle gives the name to the RKK itself. For example, the Proton launch vehicle and the Proton RSC.

The structure of the RKK is presented in Figure 2.2.

KSISO is designed to ensure control of the parameters of the ILV and its components during preparation at the technical complex and the SC, as well as during the flight of the ILV at the launch site, processing, documenting and distributing information between users. The main functions of KSISO are:

linking measurements to a single time scale;

automated collection, processing, display and documentation of information about the parameters of ILV systems on TC and SK;

external trajectory measurements on the active phase of the ILV flight (at the launch site) using radar stations;

receiving radio signals from the RKN telemetry measurement system;

RKK RKN TC SK KSISO KPOCH TC RN TC KA TC RB TC KGCH TC RKN Figure 2.2 – Structure of the rocket and space complex monitoring the condition and assessing the quality of functioning of the RKN on-board systems in flight;

receiving a signal about the separation of the spacecraft from the last stage of the launch vehicle or upper stage;

forecasting the impact locations of the separated parts of the launch vehicle in the impact areas.

KSISO equipment is located at the technical and launch complexes, the computer center of the cosmodrome, as well as in the structures of measuring points (IP), which are located near the launch complexes and along the RKN flight route. Their required number and location are determined by the conditions for continuous monitoring of the launch vehicle flight and obtaining information throughout the entire launch phase up to the separation of the spacecraft (OB) from the launch vehicle. In some cases, the functions of the IP can be performed by the KIC if the flight path of the launch vehicle passes within its visibility zone. Measuring points and a computer center form the cosmodrome's measuring complex (ICC).

A typical IP consists of a command post, uniform time system equipment, means of trajectory and telemetry measurements, means of communication with crews of manned spacecraft, electronic means of preliminary processing of information, etc. Measuring stations transmit information via communication channels to a computer center where it is processed.

The RLV KPOCH is designed to search for elements separated from the ILV (fans of the head fairing, spent stages of the launch vehicle, adapters, etc.), survey the places where they fell, collect and dispose of them, as well as eliminate the consequences of contamination of the area with rocket fuel components remaining in the stage tanks.

Injection of spacecraft into near-Earth orbits using multi-stage launch vehicles requires the alienation of sufficiently large areas of terrain located along the flight path of the launch vehicle for the impact areas of the detachable parts of the launch vehicle. As a rule, areas with low intensity of economic activity are used as fall areas. These areas in the form of ellipses or polygons occupy significant areas in the territories of Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, as well as in the waters of the White and Barents Seas (for domestic cosmodromes). When entering the dense layers of the atmosphere or directly at the impact sites, the detachable parts of the rocket launcher are destroyed, as a result of which the fall site is exposed to the environmentally harmful effects of a number of factors, among which the most significant are the SRT straits and the contamination of the earth's surface with fragments of the detachable parts of the rocket launcher. Until recently, the allocation of land for fall areas did not encounter serious difficulties. The dimensions of the impact areas were assigned based on the principle that almost all detachable parts would fall into them. However, recent years have been characterized by an increased interest of local authorities and the population living in close proximity to the fall areas in the environmental situation in these areas. Therefore, the problems of disposal of fallen detachable parts of rocket launchers are urgent, the solution of which requires an appropriate technical, methodological and legal framework.

The most important elements of the RSC, which ensure the solution of problems of ground operation of LV, SC, RB up to the launch of the RLV, are the technical and launch complexes, which, in essence, form the basis of the space infrastructure facilities of the cosmodrome. The need for TC and SC is due to the adopted two-stage strategy for preparing RKN for use. The technological equipment of these complexes is the basis on which ground-based operation of the ILV is carried out. A detailed description of TC, SC and other OKI will be given in Chapter 2.

Classification of RKK is carried out, as a rule, according to the following criteria:

a) RN class:

RSC for launching light-class launch vehicles (RSC “Cosmos”, “Cyclone”, “Start”, “Rokot”);

RSC for launching medium-class launch vehicles (RSC Soyuz, Molniya, Zenit);

RSC for launching heavy-duty launch vehicles (RSC Proton, Angara);

universal RSC for launching LVs of various classes (designed RSC for launching LVs of the Angara family, which should cover LV classes from light to heavy);

RSC for launching super-heavy launch vehicles (RSC Energia, currently not in operation);

b) environment and location:

ground-based (Rocket and Space Corporation Start, Soyuz);

underground or mine (Rocket and Space Corporation "Rokot");

surface (RSC "Sea Launch");

submarine (based on Shtil type launch vehicles of nuclear submarines);

c) mobility:

stationary (RSC Kosmos, Molniya);

mobile (RSC “Start”, “Shtil”).

The RSC is operated by operating organizations of the Federal Space Agency and the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation.

All of the above components of the RSC are designed to ensure the launch of a space rocket - the most important element of the RSC. In the RSC operation system, it is the RLV that is the object of operation. The ILV (Figure 2.3) includes the launch vehicle and the space head section (SCH), which, in turn, consists of the spacecraft and the upper stage (components of the spacecraft), and the assembly-protective unit (APB), designed for the constructive and functional connection of the spacecraft ( and RB) with launch vehicles and their protection from aerodynamic loads in dense layers of the atmosphere. The main components of the SZB are the head fairing (GO) and the transition compartment (TC).

RKN RN KGCH SC RB SZB OB PO GO Figure 2.3 – Composition of a space rocket Strictly speaking, the SZB should not be part of the space warhead, since it is dropped before the spacecraft (OB) is launched into orbit.

The launch vehicle, intended for launching a manned spacecraft into orbit, is equipped with an emergency rescue system, which is designed to rescue the crew in the event of a launch vehicle accident. Since a launch vehicle accident can be accompanied by an explosion, the system requires high performance and prompt removal of the crew to a safe distance. When the emergency rescue system is triggered, when the rocket launcher is on the launcher, the descent vehicle, using a solid fuel rocket engine, is separated from the spacecraft with an acceleration of 50-150 m/s2 and raised to a height of 1-1.5 km, sufficient to activate the landing system. .

The process of ground-based operation of the ILV and its components is largely due to their design features, which necessitate a rather lengthy and labor-intensive process of preparing the ILV for launch. Below we will consider the features of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and upper bodies, which determine the technology of their ground operation.

The ground operation of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and upper bodies largely determines the results of their intended use. If during this stage not all the planned measures are completed or defects in the onboard systems of the launch vehicle, spacecraft, and booster are missed, this may lead to failure to complete the space flight tasks. Orbital vehicles and launch vehicles have to be given a high level of properties that are not required for their intended use, but which are necessary for ground operation. In particular, such properties of LV, SC, RB as storability, maintainability, transportability and a number of others are realized only during ground operation, and during flight operation they are no longer needed, and reliability and durability come to the fore. In many ways, these circumstances determine the appearance of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and upper bodies as objects of operation.

SECTION 2. BASICS OF LAUNCH ROCKETS, UPPER UNITS AND SPACE VEHICLES 3 LAUNCH VEHICLES General information about launch vehicles 3. The world's first Earth satellite was launched by the R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) on October 4, 1957. And already for the flight of the first cosmonaut into space (April 12, 1961), it was necessary to create the Vostok launch vehicle by adding an upper stage, Block E, to the R-7 ICBM.

This began the stage of using ICBMs as the lower stages of the created launch vehicles - “Voskhod”, “Soyuz”, “Molniya”, “Cosmos”, “Cyclone”, “Proton”. The Americans followed the same path. Their first astronaut, John Glenn, was launched on February 20, 1962, using the Atlas ICBM. Moreover, due to the more severe loading conditions of the Atlas ICBM, John Glenn experienced overloads at the OUT twice as great as Yuri Gagarin.

The scale of space programs required the development of launch vehicles specifically to solve specific problems. The manned flight to the Moon initiated the creation of the unique N-1 launch vehicle in our country and the Saturn-5 in the USA. This was another breakthrough in new technologies, in the development of new materials, in electronics (the world's first digital computer was used on Saturn), in solving new large-scale engineering problems.

The culmination of the development of specialized disposable carriers in the USSR was the Zenit launch vehicle. With its help, it was possible to create orbital constellations of spacecraft in a very short time. For this purpose, a fully automated launch complex was developed, which allows refueling and launching of the launch vehicle in a matter of hours. Such a task was beyond the capabilities of the Americans and they did not forgive us for this either.

In the eighties of the last century, the practical implementation of the idea of ​​reusable space systems (ISS) began. In the USA, the partially salvageable Space Shuttle launch vehicle was created (first launch in 1981), and in the USSR, the Energia-Buran launch vehicle (1988). The development of these products was associated with another technological revolution both in the USA and here. This is what explains the exceptionally high cost of the ISS. Even the United States could not cope with financial oppression. Despite the influx of cheap scientists and engineers from bankrupt Russia, it was not possible to reduce the costs of the Space Shuttle project to an acceptable size, and the program was closed in 2011.

Reducing spacecraft launch costs should be sought by simplifying the implementation of ideas that increase the efficiency of launch vehicles. And there are a lot of these ideas, and we will mention them when considering the launch vehicle design.

The typical composition of the launch vehicle is presented in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 – Typical composition of a launch vehicle The body is designed to connect all the components of the launch vehicle into a single whole and forms an aerodynamic appearance. In the future, it may be similar to the launch vehicle shown in Figure 3.2, although this rocket itself is not much different in composition from a standard launch vehicle. The diagram of a typical two-stage launch vehicle is shown in Figure 3.3.

The basic element of any launch vehicle is the stage.

Figure 3.2 – Project of the reusable space system (ISS) “Venture Star”

A stage is a set of structural elements, fuel, engines and systems that provide acceleration of the launch vehicle and are discarded from it after the fuel is exhausted. The launch vehicle shown in Figure 3.2 has only one stage, so nothing is discarded from it. However, this is still an unattainable dream, to which, of course, we must strive.

Figure 3.3 – Diagram of a typical two-stage launch vehicle. The actual stage is shown in Figure -3.4. It is made very economically and is closer in design to the step shown in the diagram.

The tanks are included in the power structure, unlike the ISS project, where they are suspended.

Figure 3.4 – Third stage of the Soyuz-2 launch vehicle

However, in the diagram at the 2nd stage, the fuel tanks have a combined bottom, which is even more economical, but this is acceptable for high-boiling CRT, and for cryogenic components it is better to use the intertank compartment, where control system instruments can be placed, thereby saving on the instrument compartment. The tail section of the 3rd stage of the Soyuz launch vehicle is discarded immediately after the separation of the previous stage (also for the purpose of economy).

The 3rd stage of the Soyuz-2 launch vehicle uses a highly economical propulsion rocket engine with rotating cameras, which ensures motion control.

Braking of the spent stage is carried out due to the outflow of pressurization gases from the oxygen tank through a special nozzle. The tank is pressurized by supplying heated helium stored in cylinders placed in liquid oxygen. This solution makes it possible to reduce the weight of the cylinders, since helium at cryogenic temperatures occupies a significantly smaller volume.

The stage in question constitutes a separate rocket unit and is called “block I”. And the first stage of the Soyuz launch vehicle consists of four separate rocket blocks - B, C, D and D. This is due to the fact that the first and second stages of the Soyuz launch vehicle (Figure 3.5) are connected in a parallel circuit (package), and the second and third – in a sequential manner (tandem).

The sequential circuit (tandem) is best suited for disposable launch vehicles. At the same time, lower aerodynamic drag is ensured than that of the package launch vehicle, the liquid-propellant rocket engines operate at modes closer to the design one, higher mass perfection is achieved, and less disturbance occurs when the stages are separated.

The package design was born at the dawn of the space age due to the impossibility of creating a high-thrust engine required for the first stage of a tandem launch vehicle. A bundle of five blocks working near the ground solved this problem.

However, problems were created for the second stage. Firstly, a liquid-propellant rocket engine designed to operate in a vacuum must operate near the ground with overexpansion, and secondly, at the time of separation of the first stage, the tanks are already half-empty, which reduces mass perfection.

Figure 3.5 – Layout of the Soyuz-2 launch vehicle

At the same time, the package scheme has found wide use in modern launch vehicles in order to give them versatility. The installation of side stages (boosters) increases the launch vehicle's payload capacity. This principle is implemented when creating the Angara launch vehicle based on the universal rocket module (URM) (Figure 3.6).

Figure 3.6 - Universal rocket module URM - based on the liquid rocket engine RD - The Angara family of launch vehicles includes launch vehicles of several modifications in the range of payload capacities from 2 tons (Angara 1.1) to 25 tons (Angara A5) at low earth level orbit (at launch from the Plesetsk cosmodrome) (Figure 3.7).

Figure 3.7 – Models of launch vehicles of the Angara family

Different versions of the “Angara” are implemented using a different number of universal rocket modules (URM-1 - for the first stage, URM-2 - for the second and third) - one URM-1 module for light-class carriers (“Angara 1.1 and 1.2”), three for a medium-class carrier (“Angara A3”) and five for a heavy-class carrier (“Angara A5”). The length of the URM-1 is 25.1 m, the diameter is 2.9 m, and the weight with fuel is 149 tons. URM-1 is equipped with an oxygen-kerosene engine RD-191, and URM-2 is equipped with RD-0124a. To increase mass efficiency, it is proposed to use a method of transferring fuel components between rocket stages so that at the time of separation of the side blocks in the central block, the fuel tanks are full. Moreover, the possibility of rescuing the first stage URM is being considered, for which the rescue system is being tested on the basis of the URM of the reusable Baikal launch vehicle.